Childhood cancer: what you should know

Contents (click arrow to expand)

Add a header to begin generating the table of contents

Section one: About childhood cancer

Introduction to childhood cancer

Every year in the UK, around 1,800 children and another 2,300 young people are diagnosed with cancer. This works out at around 1 in every 450 children receiving a diagnosis of cancer before the age of 15.¹ Childhood cancer is not as uncommon as we first may think.

A diagnosis of cancer is something no one wants to receive, but the outcomes of children and young people diagnosed are improving. Children who receive a diagnosis today are much more likely on average to do well compared to 20 years ago. Today, more than 8 in 10 children with cancer survive for more than 5 years after their diagnosis compared to just 3 in 10 in the 1960s.²

Children develop different types of cancers to adults, but they often receive the same or similar types of treatments.

What is cancer?

Our bodies are made up of millions of tiny building blocks called cells. Inside every cell is a set of instructions that the cell needs to work properly. These instructions are called genes. They work by sending signals telling cells to grow, divide and make new cells. This is how our bodies grow and heal after an injury or illness.

Sometimes the genes in a cell can change. This means that the cell may not work properly anymore (because the instructions have changed) and no longer give the correct messages. The changed message (a mutation) in the gene can sometimes cause a cell or group of cells to grow and multiply in an abnormal way leading them grow out of control. Over time, these cells can grow or multiply into a lump (tumour), in the blood or in another location in the body. This is cancer. (glossary term: Cancer is when abnormal cells divide in an uncontrolled way.)

When a cancer grows, sometimes the cells can break away from the original tumour and spread to other parts of the body. As these cells reach a new area, they may carry on growing and dividing to form a new tumour. This is known as a metastasis or a secondary tumour.

Cancers can develop in different parts of the body including:

Inside organs (these are parts of the body that do a specific job such as the kidneys or the lungs).
Inside bones.
In blood cells (these results from cancer cells in the bone marrow – the spongy centre of your bones where blood cells are made).
In the lymphatic system (the system that helps defend the body from infections). This is called lymphoma.

Childhood cancer UK statistics

Approximately one in every 450 children will be diagnosed with cancer before their 15th birthday, the equivalent of 2 children per every average sized secondary school.
Around 1 in every 370 children and young people will receive a diagnosis by the age of 20.¹
Almost a half of children who develop cancer are diagnosed between the ages of 0 and 4 years.
Thanks to advances, the survival rates of children diagnosed with cancer are improving over time with 5-year survival rates at 84%. This means that more than 8 in every 10 children diagnosed will still be alive 5 years after diagnosis.²
Survival rates vary significantly depending on the type of cancer the child or young person has and the stage at which it is diagnosed. Some types of cancer, for example retinoblastoma (a type of cancer that affects the eye) has almost 100% 5-year survival, but there are other cancer types which sadly have very few children surviving 5 years.
Whilst outcomes of children with cancer in the UK have improved overall over recent decades, 5-year childhood cancer survival rates in the UK lag behind some other countries. Iceland, for example has a 90% 5-year survival rate (compared to 84% in the UK).³,⁴ One of the reasons for this is thought to be delays in diagnosis that are experienced by some children.
It is estimated that there are now over 45,000 childhood cancer survivors in the UK and this number is increasing over time with more children surviving to reach adulthood than ever before. These individuals have their own unique healthcare needs.
Despite improving survival rates, cancer remains the leading medical cause of death of children and young people in the UK. ¹

How are cancers in children and young people grouped?

When a child or young person is diagnosed with cancer, their age can help decide how their care is planned. The age groups used might be a bit different from those people usually expect. That’s because the types of cancer can vary depending on age.

When looking at children and young people with cancer:

A child is anyone aged 0 to 14.
A young person is anyone aged 15 to 24. This group is also often called teenagers and young adults or TYAs.

How childhood cancers differ from adult cancers

Children aren’t just small adults – their bodies work in a unique way, and so does cancer. Cancer therefore affects children in different ways to cancer in adults. Overall, people are more likely to know about adult cancers, meaning that the causes and signs and symptoms of childhood cancers are less widely known.

Childhood cancers differ from adult cancers in several ways:

Childhood cancer is less common. Adult cancers are more common than childhood cancers. In 2024, there were over 280,000 adults diagnosed with cancer in the UK compared to just over 4,000 children and young people (combined) diagnosed with cancer each year. Whilst the risk is lower in children, it is still something that should not be ignored.

The types of cancer children have. The types of cancer that children develop are often quite different to adult cancers. The most common cancer types in children are leukaemia (blood cancer), brain or spinal tumours and then lymphoma. The most common cancer types in adults are breast, prostate, lung and bowel cancers. Cancers in children often originate from different cell types meaning that cancer cells can behave in different ways and need to be treated differently.

The causes of cancer. The most common causes of cancer in adults are the natural aging process, lifestyle and environmental factors. Examples may include Smoking, damage to the skin from sun exposure or high alcohol consumption. In children, lifestyle factors like these very rarely play a part, but inherited genetic changes are involved in some children’s cancer. The cause of most childhood cancers however remains unknown.

The way treatment occurs and the aims of treatment. With more children surviving cancer than ever before, there is a strong focus on fining kinder and better treatments. Most traditional cancer treatments kill not only cancer cells, but also healthy cells too. This is a particular problem for children because at this age, their bodies are still developing and have not fully matured. This means that certain treatments can have greater long-term effects on children than . An example of this is radiotherapy which means it is used less frequently or less intensively in children.

People are less aware of the symptoms to look for. Recent research has shown that although cancer is a leading cause of death of children, the about two thirds of the public do not feel confident that they know the signs to look for.⁵ Although some childhood cancer symptoms are similar to those in adults, others can be harder to spot. They are often vague or are hard to tell apart from childhood illnesses. This can make early diagnosis difficult which is why it is so important to know the signs and symptoms.

Most children with cancer go on to live for many years after treatment. This is why treatment is not just about helping them survive the next few years, it is about protecting their future. Treatment needs to focus on their long-term health, including how it affects their growth, development and their quality of life. With the numbers of childhood cancer survivors ever growing in the UK, long term effects are of great importance.

Common misconceptions

Cancer in children is complicated! This means that misconceptions are common, so here are some myths dispelled.

Cancer in children is no-one’s fault. When a child is diagnosed, often parents worry they have done something wrong. This is simply not the case.
Cancer is not infectious, and it cannot spread from one person to another so you cannot catch cancer.
Most children’s cancers are not inherited meaning that it is unlikely for families to have more than one child affected. Parents may worry that other children they have (or may have in the future) could also be affected, but this is rare.
Cancer does not cause hair loss; it is the treatments that the child receives that often cause a loss of hair.
When hair grows back, it does not necessarily mean that treatment is over, and that the child is better. Many children require treatment over a long period of time. For some, their hair starts to grow back whilst receiving treatment so a child with hair may well be undergoing treatment and facing a range of challenges.
When treatment is finished, hospital care does not stop. Children who have had cancer need long term follow up and monitoring. Often, they require frequent scans to check for recurrence and management of their long-term effects as they occur. In addition, some children sadly go on to relapse and need additional treatment.

Risk factors and causes of cancer in children and young people

Despite a wealth of research, there is no clear reason why some children get cancer and others don’t. While some risk factors have been found, there’s no single known cause, and we don’t know how to prevent cancer occurring.

It is important to note that most children with cancer do not have risk factors, and many children who have risk factors won’t go on to develop cancer, they just have an increased risk of developing it.

Risk factors include:

Certain medical conditions – for example, children with Down’s syndrome are at increased risk of developing leukaemia compared to their peers.
Genetics – some cancer types can run in families, for example retinoblastoma (a type of eye cancer) can be inherited. Children with other genetic conditions can also be at increased risk of developing some childhood cancers including:
- - Neurofibromatosis Type 1 and 2
  - Li-Fraumeni syndrome (p53)
  - Familial adenomatous polyposis
Problems with development in the womb – some childhood cancers can start when the baby is still inside their mother when many body parts are developing early on, for example the kidneys or eyes. Sometimes, problems with the early cells maturing can result in them growing out of control and causing cancer. In the kidneys, this may be a Wilms tumour or in the eyes, this can be retinoblastoma.
Exposure to certain infections for example Epstein Barr virus (EBV) which can cause glandular fever. This can rarely contribute to the development of certain cancers such as specific types of lymphoma. However, EBV is a common virus and there is nothing that we can do to prevent ourselves of our children from catching it.
Previous cancer treatments or exposure to radiation can both increase the risk of developing additional cancers. However, these risks are small compared to the risks of not treating the first cancer effectively.

Research and advances in treatment

Research into adult cancers has been ongoing for several decades longer than childhood cancer research which only really commenced around 60 years ago. During this time however, there have been some incredible improvements in outcomes for children. Survival rates have more than doubled from less than 3 in 10 children surviving 5 years after cancer diagnosis in the 1960s to more than 8 in 10 surviving today.²

It’s important to remember that progress hasn’t been the same for all childhood cancers.

While survival rates have improved for some types, others, have seen little or no improvement over the same time period, for example a type of brain tumour called DIPG.

Recent advances in childhood cancer treatments include CAR-T cell therapy and immunotherapies, along with ongoing efforts to reduce the long-term side effects of chemotherapy and radiation. These advances have led to significantly improved survival rates, both because of more children being cured of their cancers, and with fewer children dying from the treatments they receive.

Section two: Signs & symptoms of childhood cancer

General warning signs
Age-specific symptoms to watch for
Understanding the difference between common childhood illnesses and cancer symptoms
When to seek medical attention
The importance of early detection

Childhood cancer is more common than we first may think, so it’s important to know what to look for. It is very understandable that parents can be worried about childhood cancer when their child is unwell. The signs and symptoms symptoms of childhood cancer are varied and can be similar to those of other common childhood illnesses. This can sometimes make it challenging to recognise at first.

All children get coughs and colds, bumps and sprains, and this is a normal part of childhood, but by knowing the signs to look for parents and carers can be aware when they need to have their child reviewed.

Remember that if a child has some of these signs or symptoms mentioned, it does not mean that they have cancer. The likelihood is that they still have a normal childhood illness, but they should be seen by a doctor to rule our something more serious.

Know the signs of cancer in children and young people

Pale, always tired.

Looking unusually pale to the point it is noticed by others. Feeling tired all the time or not keeping up with peers.

Pain that won’t go away.

Persistent or recurrent pain anywhere. Back or bone pain, or pain anywhere that doesn’t go away, especially if it wakes a child from sleep. This includes injuries that seem slow to improve.

A lump or swelling anywhere

Unexplained lump or swelling anywhere. This could be in any location of the body and may feel like a firmness or may be a more obvious lump. This includes in the breasts / nipples (girls and boys) and testicles.

Unusual bruising or bleeding with no injury

This could be anywhere, including blood in a child’s urine or faeces, bruising with no cause or bruising in unusual places. It may also include a non-blanching rash (think tumbler test).

Changes in vision or a new squint

Double vision, visual disturbances, a change in eye appearance or colour or unexplained seizures.

You are concerned – something about their health just isn’t right.

You know your child best. If something about your child’s health just isn’t right, then get them reviewed.

Other things to look for

Vomiting often or weight loss.
We all have sickness bugs from time to time, but vomiting of no cause should not keep happening.

Headaches that keep coming back
If headaches keep returning or are in the mornings or if they wake them up from sleep.

Changes in mood or behaviour
or falling behind peers at school or nursery.

Long lasting high temperatures
with no clear cause.

Having lots of infections or flu like symptoms
Children often catch viruses, especially in winter or when starting nursery or school but they need review if they have other symptoms such as night sweats or they aren’t getting better.

Ongoing change in bowel habit
such as constipation, diarrhoea or a feeling of incomplete emptying.

Unusual body movements, losing balance or a new limp.

Slow growth or starting puberty really early or late.
Young people go through puberty at different times, but if they are much earlier or later than peers, review is important.

Changes in the way moles look
(think size, shape and colour).

Section three: What to do if you’re worried your child has cancer

Speaking with your GP
Diagnostic tests and procedures
Questions to ask healthcare professionals
Preparing for specialist appointments

What should I do if I am worried my child may have cancer? When to seek medical attention

When a child or young person becomes unwell, it is still most likely that they have a normal childhood illness. However, if you are concerned, it may be useful to ask yourself the following questions.

Has my child:

Been looking unusually pale, to the point it is noticed by others?
Been really tired or exhausted a lot?
Been experiencing ongoing pain anywhere, especially if it is waking them at night?
Got a lump or swelling anywhere or an unusually swollen tummy?
Lost weight or been sick regularly or had an ongoing change in bowel habit?
Got an unusual appearance to their eye in photos, a new squint or disturbance in vision? (photo)
Got blood in their urine or faeces or have they been bleeding or bruising more than normal?
Had headaches that don’t go away and or any unexplained changes in behaviour / mood?
Got a new limp, particularly if they haven’t had any recent accidents / falls?
Am I feeling concerned? You know your child best. If something feels wrong, trust your instincts.

If your child has one of these symptoms or you are concerned it is a sign your child needs to be assessed by their doctor. In the unlikely event that this is cancer. Finding it early can make it more treatable.

Speaking to my child’s doctor

When you are worried, it can be hard to know what to say when you see your doctor. Here are some tips:

Appointments at the GP are usually short, so it is worth preparing before you go in.
Chat to your child’s childminder, nursery or school to see if they have noticed anything.
Write a few key bullet points of what you want to cover. It is best to keep these brief:
- - The symptoms your child has had (when they started, how often etc).
  - What you have already tried to resolve the symptoms.
  - If you have seen any health professionals about the problem before.
  - What you are worried about.
  - Any questions you may have, for example do I need to come back and see you again and what happens next.
Take someone with you if you can – they can take notes for you and provide support if you forget something. It can be nice to have some emotional support too.

What may happen next - referral

Your GP will talk through your concerns with you and make a clinical judgement as to the best next steps. If they think that your child may need further investigations, they may be referred to your local hospital for tests (either within 48 hours or immediately). If you don’t hear from your doctor or the specialist they have referred your child to in the specified time, then contact your GP surgery to follow this up.

Alternatively, if your GP feels they do not need further investigations at this time, you will be advised to return with your child if their symptoms don’t go away or worsen so they can be reassessed.

What to do if you remain concerned after seeing the doctor

After your child’s appointment, you should follow the steps that the doctor has given you.
If your child has ongoing symptoms that are not improving and you are concerned, please make sure you voice your concerns and worries again. This is especially important if you are concerned something has been overlooked.
Make sure your doctor knows how many times your child has been seen for that particular problem.
Through no fault of their own, General Practitioners, nurse practitioners and emergency doctors are working under intense time pressures, so if you feel something has not been discussed, please do not hesitate to ask for areas to be revisited. It may be that your doctor had no idea just how concerned you are. If this does not work, you are able ask for a second opinion.
Persist. It can take a few days of ringing to get an appointment when GP surgeries are very busy. The health of your child is so important, so if you are concerned, please don’t give up.
If your child becomes very ill at any point, or you become exceptionally concerned, then it is advisable to dial 999 (for life threatening emergencies), phone 111 or take them to your nearest children’s A&E hospital department for urgent assessment dependent on how unwell you think your child is.
Remember, You know your child best of all and if you are very concerned make sure you say how worried you are.

Section four: Types of cancer in children and young people

There are over 76 different types of children’s cancers which can be divided into 12 main groups. Whilst each cancer type is rare, when considered together, childhood cancers are not as rare as we may think. The most common types of childhood cancers are: Leukaemia, Brain and spinal tumours and lymphoma.

The types of cancers affecting young people (TYA) are a little different. The most common types of cancers affecting teenagers and young adults (TYA) are: Lymphoma, Germ cell cancers (which usually affect the testes and ovaries), brain and spinal cancers and melanoma. Find out more

Brain and spinal tumours
Leukaemia
Lymphoma
Renal tumours

Soft tissue sarcoma
Bone tumours
Malignant rhabdoid tumours
Retinoblastoma (eye cancer)

Germ cell tumours (ovarian and testicular cancers)
Neuroblastoma
Liver tumours

Section five: Support for you

If you are reading this, the likelihood is that your child or a child close to you has recently been diagnosed with childhood cancer. Finding out that your child has cancer is incredibly difficult to hear, but we hope our resources will help give you more information about what is happening and let you know about the support that is available. See this link for more information.

Coping with the diagnosis

As a parent or carer, this is a very difficult time for you. Many parents talk about going into survival mode, but it is important to take time to look after yourself when you can. Parents experience so many different emotions, from fear, to anger, numbness and feeling truly overwhelmed. All of these emotions are a normal response to a very challenging situation.

By talking to loved ones or professionals and by asking for practical help when you need it, it really can make a difference. If you do not know where to turn, please take a look that the support for you and support for your child sections on our website for useful signposting.

Investigations my child may undergo
My child has been diagnosed with a rhabdoid tumour
Communicating with healthcare teams
Practical support (financial, work-related, siblings)
Booklets for parents
Parent support groups and networks
Support organisations and charities
Mental health resources
Self-care strategies

Section six: Support for your child

If your child has recently been diagnosed, both you and your child may be feeling overwhelmed. When a child is diagnosed with cancer, it has a big impact on the whole family. Your child’s routine (and yours too) is likely to change, they may have to stay in hospital for treatment, and they’re likely to have regular hospital appointments.

We have a range of resources to support your child and their siblings through their journey.

Age-appropriate explanations about cancer and information booklets for children.
Managing treatment & side effects
Preparing for hospital stays
Vascular access for children with cancer (central lines and ports)
Feeding for children with cancer
Education during treatment
Social and emotional support
Play therapy and psychological resources
Maintaining normality where possible

Section seven: The treatment journey

The treatment that your child will receive will depend on the type of cancer your child has, where is located, the age of your child and following certain test results which may indicate how well your child’s cancer is likely to respond to treatment.

Common treatment options
Participating in clinical trials
Treatment centres in the UK
Multidisciplinary care teams

Section eight: Life after treatment

Finishing cancer treatment is a major milestone — but it can also bring mixed emotions.
Many families feel relief and happiness when treatment ends, but it’s also very normal to feel unsettled. Your routine will change again, and your child may still be coping with side effects and be slowly returning to school.

It’s important to remember that recovery takes time. There can be pressure to ‘get back to normal’ quickly, but every child and family is different. Healing (both physical and emotional) doesn’t follow a set timeline.

You might feel anxious about the cancer coming back or miss the regular hospital check-ups that once offered reassurance. These feelings are completely understandable and are a normal emotion to have. Take things at your own pace. With time, your family will adjust, and you’ll find a new balance that works for you. If you or your child are struggling, please speak to your child’s care team to find out more about the support that is available to you.

Follow-up care

When your child finishes treatment, their care team should provide you with a clear follow up plan to help with concerns that you may have. This usually would include:

An end of treatment summary. This is a record of all treatments that your child has received. This may include medications (including chemotherapy), radiotherapy, immunotherapies and surgery dependent on what they have received. It is important to keep this safe for future reference and when your child is followed up or receives other care as they get older, for example in pregnancy.
A follow up care plan. This should be shared with your child’s GP and their shared care consultant. Usually, this would include information on:
- - A key worker who will be allocated your child to support them through the early years following treatment.
  - How often follow up appointments will happen, and where they will be.
  - Possible long term side effects of the cancer and the treatment your child has received and any monitoring needed for these.
  - Which tests (such as blood tests or scans) will be done to check that the cancer has not returned. It will also state how often they should be carried out.
  - Any additional support that may be required for example educational support.
  - A re vaccination plan for your GP if your child needs to undergo their routine vaccinations again following treatment.

Late effects monitoring and long term follow up

Over time, your child’s follow up appointments will start to focus less on checking whether their cancer has returned and the short term side effects of treatment towards concentrating on looking for any long term side effects. At this time, your child’s team will discuss moving them to the Late Effects team. This process depends on the age of your child, the treatment they have received and also the hospital at which they received their treatment. When the time is right for your child, they will be moved across. Late effects teams usually include:

A consultant paediatric oncologist with expertise in late effects
A specialist nurse for late effects
An endocrinologist (specialises in hormones and how they effect the body)
A team coordinator to help organise care

They may contain other professionals too. They will work together to support your child’s health and wellbeing and give advice on how your child can stay healthy.

School reintegration

Depending on the type of cancer your child has had, and the treatment they received, your child may have had a lot of time off school. Many children return back to school during treatment or after finishing without much difficulty. Some look forwards to returning to normal and seeing their friends again. For others, it can be a daunting time, especially for teenagers. Every child and young person is different.

When is it the right time to go back?

There is no set timeline. It depends on several things: Where your child is in treatment, how they are feeling physically and emotionally and on the advice of their care team. If you are unsure, ask your child’s medical team for advice.

Things you can do to help

If possible, keep in touch with your child’s school whilst they are having treatment. Talk to your child’s school early on to make sure everything is in place for their return. A part time timetable or phased return is often a good starting point. Your child may find returning to school very tiring so not going back full time immediately will help them. Schools can also put together an Individual Healthcare Plan to outline the support that your child needs.

Ask your child’s school to prepare your child’s peers about what has happened, what cancer is and how they can help their friend when they return. Many children for example do not understand that cancer cannot be caught like a cough or a cold so if they are not adequately prepared for when their peer returns to school, they may be anxious or try and avoid them. Simple preparation can make so much difference.

Talk to your child and prepare them for returning to school. You could talk about anything they are looking forwards to doing and find out if there is anything they are worried about. This could be anything from anxiety at leaving you, concern about their different appearance or a worry that their friends may have moved on or may be unkind.

It is important to remember that physical and emotional recovery does not happen overnight, it takes time. By allowing your child to talk through their concerns, it can help them feel much more prepared when the time comes.

Transitioning to adult services

As your child grows into a young adult, their medical team will prepare them to move from paediatric into adult services. This is known as transition. It is an important part of making sure that they continue to receive the right care as they get older.

When this happens will depend on your child and the centre that they are receiving treatment. Most hospitals take a flexible approach and aim for a planned, coordinated process that takes place gradually.

During this time, they will be given information to help them understand their health and treatment history and be supported to become more independent in managing their care. They will also meet the adult team who will be looking after them going forwards.

Why does transition matter?

Transition is important to make sure your child is not lost to follow up and to ensure they continue to receive expert care as they move into adulthood. Handing over care can feel like a bit step both for you and your child, but it is important to ensure that they receive the best care.

Long-term outlook

There are now estimated to be over 45,000 childhood cancer survivors living in the UK. This is because more children than ever before are surviving cancer and going on to live long and healthy lives.

It is natural to wonder what comes next and what life will look like moving forwards. It is important to remember that your child will not be on their own. They will continue follow up appointments and most children adjust well. Remember that you and your have already come through something that is incredibly difficult, and to take it a step at a time.

Some children may need a little extra help, perhaps with schoolwork, in terms of their emotional wellbeing or they may have some longer-term effects following treatment, but with the right support in place they can do well.

Section nine: How can the Grace Kelly Childhood Cancer Trust help?

We are here for you every step of the way. Right from working towards earlier diagnosis of children, to vital support for families, and funding research into childhood cancers to ensure better outcomes for children in the future, we are passionate in the fight against childhood cancer.

Awareness initiatives and educational resources
Support services for families affected by childhood cancer
Research funding for rare childhood cancers
How to get involved with the Trust
Contact information and how to access resources
Online support group for families affected by rhabdoid tumours

Section ten: When treatment can no longer be curative

If your child’s medical team have let you know that curing your child’s cancer is no longer possible, it can be a lonely and very worrying time for you all. We can take you through some of the next steps.

What to do next when cancer can no longer be cured.

Section eleven: Bereavement

There is nothing more devastating for a parent than having to face the death of their child. It is something that no parent should ever have to go through. We are so sorry that you or someone you know has experienced this immense loss, but we wanted you to know that you are not alone.

The bereavement area of our website takes you through what to expect in the first few days, weeks and further on. Taking it one step at a time can help parents navigate this incredibly difficult journey.

Appendix: Resources and further information

Sign post to resources for professionals

The Grace Kelly Childhood Cancer Trust has a range of resources designed to support health care professionals in Primary care and emergency settings to recognise the signs and symptoms of childhood cancer.

Our awareness materials have been developed and reviewed by medical professionals, particularly those in primary care to ensure its practical application. Our resources are evidence-based, peer-reviewed, and as a charity, we’ve earned the PIF Tick accreditation — the UK’s only quality mark for print and online health information.

You’ll find more resources for professionals here.

Early detection of childhood cancer is key for all children. We are working to ensure that every family, regardless of background, feels supported and informed on this vital matter.

References

Public Health England. Children, teenagers and young adults UK cancer statistics report 2021. Published February 2021. https://digital.nhs.uk/ndrs/data/data-outputs/cancer-publications-and-tools/ctya-uk-cancer-statistics-report-2021 Accessed May 2025
Cancer Research UK, www.cancerresearchuk.org/health-professional/data-and-statistics/cancer-statistics/childrens-and-young-peoples-cancers-statistics Accessed May 2025.
Lethaby CD, Picton S, Kinsey SE, Phillips RS, Broadbent V, Young B, et al. A systematic review of time to diagnosis in children and young adults with cancer. Arch Dis Child. 2013;98(5):349–55. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2012-303034. PMID: 23476000.
Pritchard-Jones K, Graf N, van Tinteren H, Craft A, Acha T, Stiller C, et al. Evidence for a delay in diagnosis of Wilms’ tumour in the UK compared with Germany: implications for primary care for children. Arch Dis Child. 2016;101(5):417–20. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2015-309212. PMID: 26948824.
Liu JF, Shanmugavadivel D, Ball-Gamble A, Stewart A, Walker D; Child Cancer Smart Awareness Campaign. Public awareness of childhood, teenager and young adult cancer signs and symptoms in Great Britain: a cross-sectional survey. Arch Dis Child. 2023 Dec;108(12):987–93. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2023-325841. Epub 2023 Oct 17. PMID: 37848281; PMCID: PMC10715494.
Office for National Statistics. Health inequalities in the UK 2021 [Internet]. Newport: ONS; 2021 [cited 2025 May 8]. Available from: https://www.ons.gov.uk/

Page last reviewed August 2026